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Determining if you have a foundation problem with your home or other building is determined mostly by using your eyes and just good common sense. If you are starting to see cracks in interior drywall, windows that will not close or open, doors that suddenly seem out of kilter or other abnormal things around the home your foundation may be the culprit.

If you do a little investigative looking, finding problems can be quite easy if they are actually present. Finding a sticky window or door does not mean your foundation is bad. It may be nothing more than humidity, loose hinges or a window that needs a spring adjustment. If you find all of sudden there are a great many items with a problem then it is time to look around. Drywall cracking is a pretty good sign that the building is settling and there should be a reason why. If it is a brand new building you may expect to see a few very minor settlement cracks. Slight cracks over doorways or window corners may be caused by wood shrinkage as well. Anything beyond these minor defects should cause some added concern.

Starting on the buildings exterior, slowly walk the perimeter and take a real good look at the exposed portion of the foundation walls. If you see cracks in the wall, inward or outward bowing, sunken soils against the wall, cracks in the brick face or bowed siding for example, these are all causes for concern. Make a note of the locations and proceed to the inside of the basement.

Go to the locations you noted outside and see what is happening on the inside. Inwardly bowed walls means there is ground or water pressure being exerted against the wall on the outside. A severely bowed wall can collapse causing severe structural failure. Small very thin cracks may be nothing more than normal concrete shrinkage as the concrete dried. Using a pencil, draw a line horizontally across the crack and large enough to see easily later on. Keep checking the crack from time to time to see if the pencil mark as moved and the two sides of crack line no longer match up. If the lines are now separated vertically, it indicates that the foundation is moving. If you see a larger crack, bigger than an eighth of an inch wide, this may mean severe movement has occurred. A structural engineer or architect should be called to inspect and advise if a repair is necessary.

Bowing of any wall is a problem. The wall may have been insufficient in design to carry the loads placed on it or it at least indicates outside forces are being placed against the wall above the design limits. Poor back filling procedures, large rocks or stumps being placed in the back fill against the wall are all reasons for wall bowing. An eighth inch out of plumb is more than likely the workmanship but is acceptable. I have seen walls two inches out of plumb in eight feet. That is bad news. In most cases the outside would need to be excavated to determine the problem and the wall be replaced. Another often overlooked cause of wall bowing is excess water pressure against the wall. Ground springs, improper grading, missing gutters and downspouts can all add huge amounts of water against a foundation wall. Again use your eyes. Footing drains which should carry away that water can become clogged with silt, be crushed during back filling work or have the open air end of the drain pipe plugged with dirt or grass. Look for the footing drain pipe outlet and make sure it is clear of all debris.

Loose basement lolly columns, gaps between the buildings sill plate and the top of the foundation wall or other things that may seem odd probably are. Talk to an pro to make sure your building is safe and sound.

Pete
Your Friendly Building Inspector
http://www.Wagsys.com
BICES-Building Inspection & Code Enforcement System Software

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Source by Peter Ackerson

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Efflorescence is a very common problem with poured concrete foundations. The white powdery substance you see along the outside of your basement wall is efflorescence and indicates moisture is in contact with the masonry. Do not worry this unattractive build up is not hazardous; efflorescence is simply salt and can be easily removed with efflorescence removers or other cleaning techniques.

This does not necessarily mean that intrusion will occur. We recommend checking gutters, downspout drain lines for proper operation. Efflorescence is found on many homes without water intrusion occurring inside the home. But, it should alert you to the possibility that future steps may be needed.

What is happening, water infiltrates the block or the concrete wall and as water evaporates from the surface the mineral deposits are left behind in the form of white substance. Although efflorescence is generally a visual problem, if the efflorescence crystals grow inside and under the surface, it can cause spalling of the foundation wall, which is when the surface peels, pops out or flakes off. The salt pushes from the inside out and can eventually cause crumbling and deterioration.

Efflorescence, water-soluble salts come from many possible sources. First of all; there must be water present to dissolve and transport the salts. Groundwater is often a source of efflorescence. For water to carry or move the salts to the surface there must be channels through which to move and migrate. The more dense the material more difficult for the water to transport salts to the surface. On the other hand, the more porous the material, the greater the ease with which salts are transported and deposited. Salt-bearing water, on reaching the surface of a structure, air evaporates to deposit the salt.

When humidity is low, the water may evaporate before reaching the surface of the structure, leaving the salt deposit beneath the surface, and unseen. When the humidity is high, water evaporation is slower allowing more opportunity for salted to be deposited.

Since humidity has a definite effect on whether or not the salts appear, it can be assumed that efflorescence is a seasonal problem. The intensity of efflorescence increases after rainy winter seasons, decreases in spring, and by summer has practically disappeared. This cycle may repeat for months or years, but generally the intensity of the efflorescence decreases in all but very extreme cases, and by about the third year it should be practically eliminated.

Again I repeat, this does not necessarily mean that intrusion will occur. Checking the exterior for grade issues and low spots, ensuring the proper operation of downspouts and that water is being directed away from the foundation may help prevent efflorescence on the exterior of your foundation wall.

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Source by Rick Deckert

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Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease. However that is true only for some bacteria. In fact bacteria are the basis for life. Without them no life at all would have been possible on our planet. Bacteria is a plural word. The singular for this word is "bacterium. They have one chromosome of double-stranded DNA in a ring and most are friendly. Only a few cause disease. But then what life form is there including plants and animals, a few of whom do not cause problems. Bacteria are life because they can multiply by duplication. However, they do not multiply by mating as higher life forms do. In the process, occasionally there are genetic mutations that are preserved creating new genes. Most chance mutations are eliminated by matching between male and female genes during multiplications in higher life forms.

Thus, bacteria are at the foundation of creation of life forms. The genes of more advanced creatures including humans are identical to bacterial genes and that is the source from which they have been derived. Bacteria can transfer their genes to other life forms through a variety of processes. Bacterial genes are enclosed in a cell wall but within that wall they do not have a protective nucleus to protect the genes further thus making the modification of bacterial genes much easier than the genes in the cells of higher life forms. A type of bacteria called cynobacteria, the basic cell type of plants is responsible for producing oxygen. Without them oxygen breathing life forms would not have been possible.

Although bacteria do not carry out sexual multiplication they do appear to enjoy sex of a different kind. They have appendages called pilli. This hollow, hair like structures made of protein allow bacteria to attach to other cells. A specialized pilus, the sex pilus, allows the transfer of plasmid DNA from one bacterial cell to another. That is how they transfer antibiotic immunity from one bacteria to another. Bacteria can acquire new genes by taking up DNA molecules (eg, a plasmid) from their surroundings or from other bacteria.

Bacteria respond to variations in their environment by altering their gene expression pattern; thus, they express different enzymes depending on the carbon sources and other nutrients available to them as well as toxins in the environment that can damage them. Bacterial gene regulation is extremely efficient and the bacterial genome is highly organized. Bacteria appear to be adapt perfectly to a variety of environments, and they are ready to respond to whatever environmental changes they encounter by employing elegant and complex regulatory mechanisms. A modern theory of creation called Panspermia postulates that life has arrived on earth by a transfer of bacteria from outer space.

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Source by Ashok Malhotra

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If you have been noticing concrete cracks in your foundation that keep getting worse, or if your doors or windows do not close properly, you may need to hire a construction company to repair your foundation.

Before doing so you may want to consider hiring a structural engineer who can do a complete and thorough analysis of your foundation and make recommendations on exactly what repairs you will need made.

Another benefit of hiring a structural engineer is that they will usually be able to tell you steps you can take in the future to prevent your foundation problems from reappearing.

It is also possible that if your foundation is not in a very critical state that the engineer will simply recommend some preventative measures such as keeping the ground around your home properly watered year round. In this case you could end up saving thousands of dollars by not having to hire a foundation repair company.

By using the services of a structural engineer you can ensure that the foundation company does the work necessary to completely level your home and make sure you will not have problems again in the future. If you do not hire an independent engineer beforehand you are at the mercy of the foundation repair company to tell you what repairs they think need to be made.

The only downside of hiring an engineer to analyze your property is that it can be fairly expensive, ranging from $ 300 to possibly more than $ 800 depending on factors like the size of your property and how much work the engineer has to do to properly assess your damage . If you have a small crawl space that the engineer will have to crawl through to complete the inspection it can increase the cost and how much time it takes to get a proper assessment.

Still, even with the expense many people feel safer getting the opinion of a trusted and knowledgeable third party before hiring a company to fix their foundation as foundation repairs can cost several thousand dollars. The cost can rapidly increase depending on how much work is needed, with some repairs costing over $ 20,000 for large properties.

The only time you may be able to get by without hiring a structural engineer is if you know the repair is a very small job and the cost of hiring an engineer outweighs just having the work performed and being done with it. However, this is probably the minority of cases where a foundation repair is necessary and most of the time it would be wise to hire an engineer to know exactly what is going on.

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Source by Jack Fisher

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The grantmaking climate has been volatile since a 22% decline in foundation assets in late 2008 caused a steep drop in foundation giving. The decline lasted throughout 2009. But in 2010 foundations are recovering their lost assets. The S & P Index has improved by 68% this past year, the largest one-year upturn that since the Great Depression. As a result, 70% of foundations expect to give more this year than last year. Smaller foundations, those most likely to support Christian ministries and churches, are twice as likely to give more in 2010 than they did in 2009.

Now is the time to ensure your ministry or church is aware of the best foundations so as not to waste time and energy looking for funding from the wrong sources. Opportunities for funding abound. Here are a few reasons …

• the upswing in the market means more funds are available for your organization
• the number of foundations in the United States is soaring – about 2,000 new foundations are expected to spring up in 2010
• the sooner you develop relationships with them the better
• wealth is shifting from individuals to foundations

There are no less than 10,000 foundations with assets totaling around $ 400 billion that support Christian ministries and churches.

The following Christian-friendly foundations are good places to begin your search. They are ten of the best funders of Christian ministries and churches based on a number of factors. They give the majority of their funding to Christian ministries and churches, they specifically support evangelism, and they give on a national basis.

MJ Murdock Charitable Trust

The foundation was granted charitable status in December 1975 in Vancouver, Washington. The Trust's purpose is to support and enrich the quality of life in the Pacific Northwest by providing grants to organizations that seek to strengthen the region's educational, spiritual, and cultural base in creative and sustainable ways.

Grants are available for Building Funds, Matching Gifts, Equipment, Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, Research Funding, Seed Funding, and Project Funding. The Trust's funding interests include Education, Health & Human Services, Arts & Culture, Science, Medicine & Engineering, and Scientific Research. Between 2005 and 2009, 43 percent of the Trust's funds went to health and human services, 30 percent to education, 19 percent to scientific research, and eight percent to arts and culture.

The Trust is especially interested in funding scientific and research efforts that further the pursuit of knowledge. Its educational funding interests are projects and programs in both formal and informal settings … program enhancement and expansion … and new approaches consistent with an organization's mission and resources.

Its arts and culture funding priorities are educational outreach efforts and performance and visual Projects that enrich the culture of the region. The Trust funds health and human services efforts that address physical, spiritual, social, and psychological needs. It is especially interested in programs for youth.

Its average grant size is $ 95,000. Its largest grant is $ 8 million.

ARTHUR S DEMOSS FOUNDATION

The foundation was granted charitable status in March 1959 in Washington, DC. Its

primary purpose is to support Christian Evangelical purposes. Its funding interests include Christian Organizations & Churches, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Children, and Youth & Families. Grants are available for Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, and Seed Funding. Grants are awarded to spread the Christian gospel through any means. This includes technical assistance to missionaries and missionary groups, and support for pastors, evangelists, preachers, and others who spread the Christian Gospel. Grants also support the printing and distribution of Christian literature, Bible and tracts, and audio and audio-visual communication.

The foundation's programs include Power For Living, which seeks to make as many people as possible throughout the world aware of the Biblical account and how people can get right with Christ; Executive Ministries, which focuses on turning business executives into disciples of Christ; Literature for Little Ones, which provides Christian literature and books, including the Bible to children.

The average size of its grants is $ 430,000. Its largest grant is $ 19-million.

CIOS

Christ Is Our Savior, Inc. (CIOS) was granted charitable status in February 1987 in Waco, Texas. CIOS provides grants for Program-related Investments / loans. An example of this is the three-year $ 1.1 million grant it awarded to Baylor University's Center For Family and Community Ministries in 2006. It funded a Center proposal that had four objectives … educating future community ministry leaders for churches … preparing these leaders through congregational field internships in the School of Social Work … producing community ministry resources and training for churches, much of which will be come from recent research within the school … and publishing a quarterly journal to be used as a resource for congregational leaders.

The average size of its grants is $ 125,000. Its largest grant is $ 4 Million.

CHATLOS FOUNDATION INC

The foundation was granted charitable status in February 1955 in Longwood, Florida.

Its purpose is to proclaim the glory of God by funding nonprofit organizations in the US and around the globe.

Grants are available for Building Funds, Equipment, Operating Funds, Land Acquisition, Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, Publication Funding, and Technical Support. The foundation's funding interests include Bible Colleges & Seminaries, Religious Causes, Liberal Arts Colleges, Medical Issues, and Social Issues.

The foundation's average grant size falls between $ 10,000 and $ 25,000. Its largest grant is $ 600,000.

THE CROWELL TRUST

The Crowell Trust was granted charitable status in August 1941 in Colorado Springs, Colorado. Grants are available for Building Funds, Equipment, Operating Funds, Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, Scholarships. The foundation's funding interests include Christian Organizations & Churches, Missions, Religion, Theological Education, and Youth Ministries.

The foundation's mission is to provide grants that teach and actively help spread Evangelical Christianity. Its grants promote Evangelism and Discipleship, International Cross-cultural Missions, International Church Planting, US-focused Missions, Christian Higher Education, and Christian Leadership Development.

The average size of the foundation's grants is $ 40,000. Its largest grant is $ 750,000.

TYNDALE HOUSE FOUNDATION

The foundation was granted charitable status in December 1966 in Carol Stream, Illinois.

Its purpose is to minister to the needs of the people through grants to Christian charities. Its charitable fund supports Christian work around the world. Although the foundation is most noted for its support for Christian literature projects, including new translations of the Bible in languages ​​throughout the world, it also supports Christian Higher Education, Evangelism, Disaster Relief, and Social Services in the United States and abroad.

Grants are available for Conferences & Seminars, Operating Funds, Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, and Publication Funding. The foundation's funding interests include Christian Organizations & Churches, Human Services, Language & Linguistics, Literature, Protestant Organizations & Churches, and Religion.

The foundation's average grant size is $ 25,000. Its largest ever grant is $ 300,000.

HUSTON FOUNDATION

The foundation was granted charitable status in August 1959 in Wayne, Pennsylvania.

The foundation's grants support health, social, and human services, arts and culture, Christian organizations, education, and public policy. Grants are available for Annual Campaigns, Building Funds, Emergency Funds, Equipment, Operating Funds, Matching / challenge Funding, Program Funding, Research Funding, Seed Funding, and Technical Support.

The primary purpose of the foundation is to fund ministries that have a strong Protestant, Christ-centered, Biblical-based foundation. This includes ministries that have an effective prayer and a unique calling by the Holy Spirit to promote evangelism and discipleship around the world. Nationally it focuses on secular issues, including humanitarian needs. It also seeks to encourage problem solving and innovative, practical approaches to meeting the changing needs of our regional, national, and international communities.

The average size of the foundation's grants is $ 10,000. Its largest grant is $ 250,000.

A previous article also discussed the National Christian Foundation, the Maclellan Trust, and the Harry J. Lloyd Foundation. Combined these are the best foundations as of 2010 for Christian Ministries and churches.

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Source by Dr.

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When using an organic makeup, you're sure putting on your skin only natural products and high biological value, rich in vitamins, minerals, oils and polysaccharides, etc., and these products are free of pesticides, hormones, preservatives, parabens and chemicals and genetically modified. To have a gentle and beautiful skin, you need to choose the organic makeup brands and the best natural foundation that you'll use.

The best natural foundation in addition to meeting the primary objective of the makeup, which is prettify, create an aesthetic effect, using makeup you are also taking care of the health of your skin, adding nutritional and antioxidant properties directly from nature, it may be a great choice, too, for people with allergies and sensitivity. Your skin will feel the difference.

To differentiate a common product of an organic makeup, read labels. There are also some elements which may be natural or chemicals such as moisturizers and preservatives. We should also pay attention to this particular point.

Try to use organic makeup because it is much more beneficial than the other, and does not cause damage to your health. For example, the natural foundation takes care the epidermis and returns it to its natural conditions, and especially vitality. This is due to the action of natural ingredients directly into the skin tissue without the interference of other synthetic components that can sometimes present irritative potential.

When choosing a natural foundation, check what it offers: mineral products or if it is hypoallergenic, for example. The ingredients should be pure and contain organic assets.

The best natural foundation should have an ultrafine texture that adheres well to the skin, the finish must be a middle ground between the natural and the matte color, without let the shining face, but can not let the fully opaque face

So, for you can benefit from this type of makeup, you need to find a reliable makeup brand. Note some of its benefits.

1. The organic makeup should be free of parabens

The parabens are synthetic chemicals used as preservatives in food, medicines, beauty products and makeup. The advantage of reliable organic makeup brands is to be free of this component which can cause allergies, premature aging of skin cells and cancer.

2. The organic makeup does not degrade the environment

As the production of this type of product does not use chemicals in their culture and attempts to minimize the maximum damage to the environment, to maintain the "organic" label, it is less aggressive to the environment. In an attempt to become us more aware and civilized for the sake of the planet and personal development, we do well to acquire it.

3. Organic Makeup is good for sensitive skin

Sensitive skin types do not suffer from the makeup for not having enough chemicals to cause allergies or irritations. The oil, very common among non-organic makeup products are responsible for clogging the pores, pimples and kidney cancer and liver.

4. Organic Makeup provides greater functionality to the product

As the organic makeup does not have chemical agents that damage both the skin, it ultimately benefits not only the superficial beauty, but also the natural beauty of the skin.

Now that you know all the benefits of this type of makeup, you can feel more peaceful when choosing the best natural foundation and have a gentle and natural skin.

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Source by Kristin Adams

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Hardcore is the material put under floors. It is used as a sub base after building the foundation wall to make up levels before casting the ground floor concrete slab. The recommended is hard stone ballast or quarry waste that should not pass a sieve of more than six inches when broken down. This shall be free of weeds, roots, vegetable soil, clay, black cotton soil or other unsuitable materials. Broken stones or brick cuttings can also be used as hardcore.

To lay hardcore under floor beds, use well graded smaller pieces mixed with fine materials. This will give a dense compact mass after consolidation. This shall be laid in layers not exceeding ten inches of consolidated thickness. Sufficient fine materials shall be added to each layer to give a gradation necessary to obtain a solid compact mass after rolling. A ten tonne smooth wheeled or two tone vibrating roller should be used to compact each layer.

Compact each layer with eight passes of the roller when laying hardcore under floor beds. Add sufficient water with every pass to obtain maximum compaction. To each layer add a fine layer of sand or quarry dust forced into the hardcore by a rolling vibrator. All the materials used must always be dry to avoid caking or stickiness. This may allow pockets of air or free spaces. This may sink when the hardcore is loaded with weight. If the sand is absorbed into the holes between hardcore then keep compacting.

Thoroughly compact the hardcore filling under floor beds until sand is not absorbed. The top surface should be made level. The levels are done or graded to the required falls. After this is done a blinding layer of similar broken materials is added. This is of at least one inch in thickness. A ten tonne roller is used to smoothen the surface. This mass of hardcore is now ready for anti termite, damp proofing and mesh reinforcement material before concreting the ground floor slab.

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Source by Andrew Karundu

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Are you looking to purchase a manufactured "mobile" home and finance it with a FHA loan? Are you looking to refinance your current loan with an FHA loan? If you are, then the foundation of your home will have to be reviewed by a licensed structural engineer to ensure that is complies with HUD requirements dictated by HUD Handbook 4930.3 entitled, "Permanent Foundations Guide for Manufactured Housing" and as updated per the Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 (enacted July 30, 2008). New homes must meet the requirements of HUD Handbook 4145.1, REV-2, CHG-1 entitled, "Architectural Processing and Inspections for Home Mortgage Insurance" and reported using form HUD-92051 entitled, "Compliance Inspection Report".

The foundation requirements posted by HUD are often times more stringent than those required by the local building code. The intent of these requirements is to make your home safe by increasing it's ability to withstand strong winds and earthquakes, more resistant to moisture problems and enhanced bearing strength to reduce the possibility for foundation settlement.

Below is a list of the basic HUD foundation requirements:

• Poured concrete footings or approved engineered foundations must support the piers.
• If using concrete blocks (CMU) as piers, then the piers must be either laid in Portland cement mortar or dry-stacked and coated with a fiber reinforced surface bonding cement. Steel jack stands are an approved pier substitute provided they are designed and sealed by a licensed engineer.
• The chassis must be anchored to the footings (screw-in earth anchors are not allowed).
• Enclose the foundation with a durable skirting. As of May 21, 2009, vinyl or metal skirting materials are allowed.
• Provide adequate ventilation in the crawl space area. 1 square foot of net free area per 150 square feet of crawl space floor area is required around the perimeter of the home.
• The ground underneath the home must be covered with a 6mil minimum thickness polyethylene vapor barrier.
• All equipment used to transport the home (tongues, axles and wheels) must be removed from the site.
• All utilities must be permanently installed.

As you can see, the requirements are more stringent than those required by most building codes. I recommend contacting your local licensed structural engineer who can assist you with determining your home's compliance and what steps, if any, are required to upgrade the foundation of your home.

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Source by Jon R Vandergrift

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Underpinning is a method used to increase the foundation depth. This may be done in case a developer wants to add more stories to a building. Also, the foundation could be damaged by tree roots and this method used for correction.The adjacent construction may have foundations lower than the existing thus requiring to be lowered. If basements are constructed very near an existing building, the foundation may need to be changed. The reason is for stability of the existing house. Cracks may appear in a building up to the base thus needing a foundation remedy.

The underpinning in foundations may be undertaken and but supervised by an engineer. This works should follow instructions keenly for safety. Before any commencement, of work the area of ​​operation should be hoarded. The works take from excavation to finishes approximately a month to complete. The area to work on is measured and mapped out. The work should commence from the corners working inwards. This is done on load bearing walls only. Foundations without any load bearing walls are exempted. The defects on these walls can be corrected using most simple methods.

The underpinning in foundations starts with excavations. This should be done under a strip footing. A length of one meter, a width of half a meter and depth of half a meter pit is dug. This is done in stages of two meters. This is distance between the pits. After the excavations, mass concrete is added to the cavity. Mixes are one part cement, three parts sand and six parts aggregates. Concrete is made to a good consistence and is poured into the cavity. Use form work on the edges. Use a rod bar ensuring that the cavity under the existing foundation is filled up.

After the underpinning concrete is placed in the cavity, its allowed to set for two days. The operation is repeated for the next bay. This continues until the required foundation is complete. Ensure that the concrete is cured thoroughly before loading it. The next thing is to break off the projecting foundation. Cut the concrete flush with the mass concrete surface. after this is completed for all the bays, soil is then back filled and compacted thoroughly. Watering with a hose is done for consolidation of the soil. This is done upon completion of the work.

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Source by Andrew Karundu

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Introduction

The term 'morality' has been defined in an explanatory way under two broad classifications in this article: (a) general description, (b) biblical description. The main reason for this classification is to be able to compare biblical system of morality, which is the focus of the study with other systems of morality. Scott B. Rae observed, 'most people use the term morality and ethics interchangeably. Technically, morality refers to the actual content of right and wrong. Morality is the end result of ethical deliberations, the substance of right and wrong'.1 While noting this difference, the terms would be discussed as an inseparable pair in this paper.

General Definition of Morality

According to the New Bible Dictionary, the words' ethics' and 'morals' according to the Greek and Latin books mean' customs'.2 The idea is to discover the things that are usually done and conclude that these are the things one ought to do. Logically, it follows that these are the things that will seem right to the individual and also to society. Scott B. Rae goes a bit further in stating what morality is primarily concerned about. He said that morality is primarily concerned about questions of right and wrong, the ability of distinguishing between the two, and the justification of the distinction.3 There may be norms in society, with reference to what is right and wrong. However, society faces so many new and challenging issues, that people are forced into ethical deliberations. Samuel Enoch Stumpf, in his book, 'Elements of Philosophy', possesses the following questions: Why can not we do just what we want to do? What difference does it make to anyone how we behave? Why does the question of ethics arise in the first place? Why should we think that one way of behaving is better than the other? That telling the truth is better than trying to get ourselves out of trouble by telling a falsehood? And who has the authority to tell us what to do? He concludes by saying that one should study ethics in order to find answers to the questions, what should I do? And why should I do it? 4 From Stumpf's statement it can be seen that the main issue that divides people in their moral views is that of the ultimate source of moral authority.

Norman L. Geisler in the first seven chapters of his book, 'Ethics: Options and Issues' shows this division among people as he discussed the basic approaches to ethics. He states that ethical systems could be broadly divided into two main categories: deontological (duty centered) and teleological (end-centered). Deontological systems are systems that are based on principles in which actions (or character or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong. Teleological systems, on the other hand are system that are based on end result produced by an action.5 Scott B. Rae, in his discussion on ethical systems included one more division – relativism, to that already stated by Geisler. According to him 'relativism' refers to an ethical system in which rights and wrongs are not absolutes and unchanging, but relative to one's culture (cultural relativism) or one's own personal preferences (moral subjectivism) .6 However, this third category can still fit under Geisler's two divisions. Further, Geisler stated that there are six major ethical viewpoints: (i) Antinomianism – says there are no moral norms; (Ii) Situationism – affirms that there is one absolute law (the law of love); (Iii) Generalism – claims that there are some general laws but no ones; (Iv) unqualified absolute laws that never conflicts; (V) conflicting absolutism – contends that there are many absolute norms that sometimes conflicts and one is obligated to do lesser evil; and (vi) graded absolutism – holds that many absolute laws sometimes conflict, but one is responsible to obey the higher law. Geisler pointed out these six sub-categories are based on a view of ethical approach, which revolves around norms – deontological.7 In contrast the other approach does not stress norms but ends – teleological, and is described as non-normative or utilitarian approach.

Biblical Definition

1. General Observations

DH Field observed that, 'biblical ethics are God centered, instead of following majority opinion, or conforming to customary behaviour, the scripture encourages us to start with God and his requirement – not with man and his habits – when we look for moral guidelines' .8 In order to understand the Bible's definition of morality, one needs to examine the scripture, as Field observed, to see what God says and requires. He points out five things from the Bible about biblical morality points us to the person of God to discover that nature of goodness. God alone is good and it is his will that expresses what is good and acceptable and perfect; ii) the source of moral knowledge is revelation. According to the Bible, Knowledge of right and wrong are not so much an object of philosophical inquiry as an acceptance of divine revelation; iii) moral teaching is phrase as commend not statements. With the exception of the OT wisdom literature, moral judgements are laid down flatly, not argued out reasonably. The philosophers on the other hand had to reason their moral judgment in order to convince people that they are good; iv) The basic ethical demand in biblical ethics is to imitate God. God sums up goodness in his own person. Man's supreme ideal according to the Bible is to imitate him; v) Religion and ethics is theocentric. The moral teachings of scripture loose its credibility once the religious undergirding is removed. Religion and ethics are related as foundation to building. Biblical ethics spring from biblical doctrine and the two are inseparable. 9

2. Morality in the Old Testament

From a amore general overview of biblical morality, it is but proper to understand the concept as presented in the two testaments. In the OT a close understanding of the covenant, the Law and the Prophets can give one a clearer understanding of morality. These three aspects will now be examined individually examined.

a) The Covenant

The covenant God made with Israel through Moses (Exod. 24) had direct and far-reaching significance. God's grace as seen in his actions of love and concern in delivering Israel from Egypt, supplies the chief motive for obedience to his commandments. The Israelites as God's partners were united to respond gracefully to God's prior acts of underserved love. They were called to his will in gratitude for his grace, rather than submit in terror to threats of punishment. For this reason, for example, slaves were to be treated generously because God treated the Hebrew slaves with generosity in Egypt.

The covenant also encourages an intense awareness of corporate solidarity in Israel. Its effect was not only to unite the individual to God, but also to bind all covenant members into a single community. A man's transgression therefore can affect the whole community (josh 7), and everyone is under obligation to help a needy person. The strong emphasis on OT ethics hinges on social ethics.

b) The Law

The covenant provided the context for God's law giving. A distinctive feature of the OT law was its stress on the maintenance of right relationships between people and between people and God. It can be noted that the most serious sequence of the law breaking was not any material punishment, but the resulting breakdown in relationships. (Ho 1: 2). The Ten Commandments, which should be seen as the heart of the law, are concerned with the most fundamental of relationships. They set out the basic sanctity governing belief, worship and life.

c) The Prophets

Social conditions in Israel changed dramatically since Moses' time, and the Israelites failed to see how the law required obedience in their daily dealings in society, which also affected their relationship with God. The Prophets made it their business to interpret the law by digging down to its basic principle and applying these to the concrete moral problems of their day.

2. Morality in the New Testament

Norman L. Geisler made the following observations about New Testament
Ethics:

1) That Christian ethics is based on God's will. It is, as she puts it, a form of

divine command position; an ethical duty, which is something we ought to

do. It is prescriptive;

2) that Christian ethics is absolute. The fact that God's moral character does
not change (Mal 3:16) means those moral obligations that flow from his nature are absolute. Geisler points out that whatever is traceable to God's unchanging moral character is a moral absolute eg holiness, justice, love, truthfulness and mercy. Other commands flow from God's will, but they are not absolute. That is, they must be obeyed because God prescribed them, but he did not prescribe them for all people, times and places. Absolute moral duties, on the contrary are binding on all people at all times and in all places;

3) That Christian ethics is based on God's revelation. What God commands

has been revealed both generally (Rom. 1: 19-20; 2: 12-15) in nature, and

specifically (Rom. 2: 2-18; 3: 2) in scripture. God's general revelation

contains his command for all people. His special revelation declares his

will for believer;

4) That Christian ethics is prescriptive since moral rightness is prescribed by

a Moral God. Geisler pointed out that there is no moral law without a

moral Lawgiver, or a moral legislation without a moral legislator. Therefore

Christian ethics is prescriptive not descriptive. Christians do not have their

ethics in the standard of Christians but in the standard for Christians – The

Bible A; and

5) Christian ethics is deontological. That is, based on principles in which

actions (or character or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong.10

CONCLUSION

Morality, as defined in this paper is the actual content of right and wrong. The major issue however is how to determine it. The main question that arises out of this issue is: Where lies the ultimate source of moral authority? One group of people believes that authority is immanent, human beings have the authority to create their own moral rules and systems – they fall under the category of teleological ethics. The other group believes that moral authority is transcendent, that is, authority exists outside of ordinary human experience. In biblical morality, that authority is God, who has revealed himself to human beings through his special and general revelation. That makes biblical ethics unique. It is deontological. In both the old and New Testament it is seen that morality is grounded in the nature and character of God.

As was pointed out, ethics and morality are inseparable. For Christians, ethics is not so much of determining the good but of choosing it. For non-Christians it is more of determining the good. Whether one is a Christian or not as human being, one will certainly engage in ethical deliberations.

END NOTES

1Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 15.

2D.H. Field, Ethics: New Bible Dictionary. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982),

p. 351.

3Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 21.

4Enoch Stumpf, Elements of Philosophy (London: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 21.

5Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), p. 24.

6Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 16.

7Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), p. 25.

8D.H. Field, Ethics: New Bible Dictionary. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982),

p. 351.

9Ibid, p. 351.

10Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), pp. 22-24.

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Source by Leopold A. Foullah